Summary

Salvia divinorum is a perennial labiate used for curing and divination by

the Mazatec Indians of Oaxaca, Mexico. The psychotropic effects the plant

produces are compared to those of the other hallucinogens employed by

the Mazatecs, the morning glory, Rivea corymbosa L., Hallier f. and the

psilocybin-containing mushrooms. A discussion of the role of ska Maria

Pastora in the native "pharmacopeia" is based on previous reports and

fieldwork by the authors, with a Mazatec shaman.

Introduction

Salvia divinorum (Epling & Jativa-M.) is a perennial herb in the Labiatae

(mint family) native to certain areas in the Sierra Mazateca of Oaxaca,

Mexico (Fig. 1). It is one of about 500 species of Salvia in the New World

subgenus Calosphace (Epling and Jativa-M., 1962). The plant grows in large

clones to well over 1m in height and its large green leaves, hollow square

stems and white flowers with purple calyces are characteristic taxonomic

features. This sage has been found only in forest ravines and other moist

humid areas of the Sierra Mazateca between 750 m and 1500 m altitude

(Diaz, 1975a). Carl Epling, who first described S. divinorum, reported

the newer as having a blue corolla, and it has been illustrated this way in

the literature (Epling and Jativa-M, 1962; Schultes, 1976). However, this

description has been shown to be an error, as all living specimens of the

plant have had blossoms with white corollas and purple calyces (Diaz,

1975a; Emboden, 1979).

S. divinorum is one of several vision-inducing plants employed by the

Mazatec Indians, one of the native Peoples living in the mountains and

upland valleys of northeastern Oaxaca. Unlike other Mexican tribes, there

Fig. 1. S. divinorum at the Matthaei Botanical Gardens, University of Michigan (December 1980).

is little information concerning their existence before the arrival of the

conquering Spanish, who reduced the Mazatecan population through exploi-

tation and disease (Weitlaner and Hoppe, 1964). The 1970 census estimated

their number at 92,540 (Cortes, 1979) and the language of the Mazatec-

Popoloca family is one of the many non-Spanish dialects spoken throughout

Mexico (Weitlaner and Hoppe, 1964). The Mazatecan ritual use of hallucino-

gens, such as mushrooms containing psilocybin and morning glory seeds

containing lysergic acid amide, has been widely publicized through the

investigations of R. Gordon Wasson and Albert Hofmann, among others

(Wasson and Wasson, 1957; Wasson, 1963; Hofmann, 1964; Hofmann,

1980).

Review of literature

Although the use of the mushrooms and morning glories was documented

by the Spanish conquistodores and chroniclers who arrived in Mexico during

the Sixteenth Century (Wasson, 1963), the literature on S. divinorum is

relatively recent. Wasson originally proposed that this Salvia was the plant

known to the Spanish by the Nahuatl (Aztec) name of pipiltzintzintli, but

new investigations suggest that the Mexican name probably refers to

Cannabis sativa I,. (Diaz, 1979).

There are a number of common names for S. divinorum and nearly all

are related to the plant's association with the Virgin Mary. It is known to

the Mazatecs as ska Maria Pastora, the leaf or herb of Mary, the Shepherdess.

The name is usually shortened to ska Maria or ska Pastora and the sage is

also known by a number of Spanish names including hojas de Maria, hojas

de la Pastora, hierba (yerba) Maria or la Maria. The Mazatecs believe this

Salvia to be an incarnation of the Virgin Mary, and care is taken to avoid

trampling on or damaging it when picking the leaves, which are used both

for curing and in divination (Fig. 2).

Attempts at the identification ska Maria Pastora were carried out in

conjunction with anthropological expeditions led by one of Mexico's leading

anthropologists, the former Austrian engineer, Roberto G. Weitlaner, who

rediscovered native use of hallucinogenic mushrooms among the Mazatecs

in 1936 (Wasson, 1963). On a field trip in 1938, Weitlaner's future son-in-

law, the American anthropologist, Jean B. Johnson learned that the Mazatecs

employed a "tea" made from the beaten leaves of a "hierba Maria" for

divination. The preparation was used in a manner similar to the "narcotic"

mushrooms and the semillas de la Virgen, which were later identified as

morning glory seeds (Johnson, 1939). Bias P. Reko, who knew Weitlaner

well, referred to a "magic plant" employed by the Cuicatec and Mazatec

Indians to produce visions. It was known as the hoja de adivinaci6n (leaf of

prophecy) and although Reko could not identify the plant, it was probably

S. divinorum (Reko, 1945).

In 1952 Weitlaner reported the use of a yerba (hierba)-de Maria by the

Mazatecs in Jalapa de Diaz, a small Oaxacan village. According to his infor-

mant the leaves of this plant were gathered by curanderos (shamans or

healers), who went up into the mountains and harvested them after a session

of kneeling and prayer. For use in "curing" the foliage was rubbed between

the hands and an infusion of from 50 to 100 leaves was prepared, the higher

dose being used for alcohol "addicts". Around midnight the curandero,

the patient and another person went to a dark quiet place (perhaps a house)

where the patient ingested the potion. After about 15 min the effects

became noticeable. The subject would go into a semi-delirious trance and

from his speech the curandero made a diagnosis and then ended the session

by bathing the patient in a portion of the infusion that had been set aside;

The bath supposedly ended the intoxicated state. In addition to such

"curing", the yerba Maria also served for divination of robbery or loss

(Weitlaner, 1952).

Five years later the Mexican botanist, A. G6mez Pompa, collected speci-

mens of a Salvia known as "xka (sic) Pastora". He noted that the plant was

used as a hallucinogen (alucinante) and a dose was prepared from 8 to 12

pairs of leaves. Since flowering material was not available, the sage could not

be identified beyond the generic level (G6mez Pompa, 1957). The holotype

specimen of S. divinorum was acquired by Wasson and Hofmann in 1962

while they were traveling with Weitlaner. Flowering plants were brought to

them in the village of San Jose Tenango, as they were not permitted to visit

the locality in which ska Maria Pastora grew. This collection was sent to

Epling and Jativa-M. who described it as a new species of Salvia, S. divinorum

(Wasson, 1962; Epling and Jativa-M., 1962).

Wasson was the first to personally describe the effects of ska Pastora,

relating the experiences he and members of his party had on ingestionof

different doses of a beverage prepared from the plant's foliage. At a session

in July 1961 in which he participated, a curandera (female shamans are very

common among the Mazatecs and other Mexican peoples) squeezed the

juice of 34 pairs of leaves by hand into a glass and added water. Wasson

drank the dark fluid and wrote that although the effects came on faster than

those of the mushrooms, they lasted a much shorter time. He saw only

"dancing colors in elaborate, three-dimensional designs" (Wasson, 1962).

Summing up the experience, he later stated (pers. comm.):

A number of us (including me) had tried the infusion of the leaves and we thought

we experienced something, though much weaker than the Psilocybe species of

mushroom.

Hofmann and his wife, Anita, who accompanied Wasson on an expedition

the following year, took the infusion prepared from five and three pairs of

S. divinorum leaves, respectively. Mrs. Hofmann "saw striking, brightly

bordered images" while Hofmann found himself "in a state of mental

sensitivity and intense experience, which, however, was not accompanied --

by hallucinations" (Hofmann, 1980).

Maria Sabina, the Mazatec shaman made famous by Wasson, and who

lives in the Mazatec highland town of Huautla, in Oaxaca, briefly mentioned

her use of the plant in her autobiography (Estrada, 1977):

If I have a sick person during the season when the mushrooms are not available, I

resort to the hojas de la Pastora. Crushed (molido) and taken, they work like the

"children" (i.e., the mushrooms). Of course, the Pastora doesn't have as much

strength.

Roquet and Ganc reported that the Mazatecs prepared a dose of S.

divinorum from 120 pairs of crushed leaves and used the plant only when

the mushrooms and morning glory seeds were not available. Roquet and his

associates used the plant twice in their psychiatric investigations of Mexican

hallucinogenic plants and stated that they had difficulties in working with

it (Roquet, 1972).

Jose Luis Diaz and his coworkers studied the use of ska Maria Pastora in

the Mazatec highlands during the 1970's. Diaz himself took the Salvia infu-

sion under the supervision of a shaman, Dona J., on six different occasions,

noting an increased awareness of the plants effects each time. The first

changes he perceived were a series of complex and slowly changing visual

patterns that occurred only in complete quiet with closed eyes. There were

no colored geometric patterns which characteristically occur with ingestion

of other hallucinogens nor were there auditory images. After a short time

he noticed peripheral phenomena, such as a feeling of lightness in the

extremities and odd sensations in the joints. The climax of effects, accom-

panied by dizziness or nausea (mareo), lasted about 10 min and disappeared

about 0.5 h after ingestion of the infusion. Other, more subtle, effects

seemed to persist for a few hours (Diaz, 1975a).

Hofmann (Hofmann, 1964) and Diaz (Diaz, 1975a) each investigated

S. divinorum chemically without isolating and identifying any active prin-

ciple. As noted above, the descriptions in the literature emphasize the

mildness of the plant's effects. There are many ways to achieve visions other

than by ingestion of classically defined "hallucinogens" such as mescaline,

LSD and psilocybin. Among these are meditation, prayer, mental illness,

disease (especially when accompanied by fever), poisoning, experiences of

dying, and suggestion (placebo effect). Therefore, prior to conducting

chemical and animal studies, we decided to attempt to clarify the role of

S. divinorum as a vision inducer among the Mazatec Indians.

Mazatec healing

The following report is based on fieldwork with a Mazatec curandero, or

healer, living near the Alemin Reservoir in the Mexican state of Oaxaca,

about 100 km from the port of Veracruz. Although a study based on in-

formation from a single source is open to criticism, the jealous and secretive

nature of native shamans works against statistical methods of survey. Visiting

many shamans in a single area can actually lessen the amount of information

gathered, as each curandero may fear the visitor is telling their secrets and

giving their "power" to a rival. To them magic can hurt or kill. Wasson and

'Richard E. Schultes have both commented on the difficulty of making

contacts with the curanderos of this region (Wasson and Wasson, 1957;

Schultes, 1941).

Don Alejandro, the informant, spoke only a Mazatecan dialect. One of

his sons served as an interpreter, translating from the native tongue to

Spanish. The information they provided the authors was gathered in frag-

ments over many visits during the summer of 1979 and spring of 1~980.

Mazatec healing and religion are united in a manner common to tradi-

tional cultures. This is somewhat foreign to Western scientific medicine

which is isolated from religion except for the times when it no longer serves

to cure. A brief description of Mazatec healing, based mainly on the work

with Don Alejandro should help to explain the use of ska Maria Pastora

and its relationship to other healing plants. The Mazatecs (the name, taken

from the city of Mazatlan, was actually imposed on the natives by the

Spanish) are nominally Catholic Christians, but they have incorporated many

features of their traditional beliefs into their conceptions of God and the

Saints, whom they consider to have been the first healers. The most promi-

nent among them is San Pedro, or Saint Peter, who is said to have cured

a sick and crying infant Jesus through the ritual use of tobacco (Nicotonia

spp.). Tobacco is considered to be a health problem in the United States

and many other countries, and its acute pharmacological effects are due to

the alkaloid nicotine (Larson et al., 1961). Yet for the Mazatecs, as well

as for almost all Mesoamerican Indians, it is the most important curing tool

in the "pharmacopeia". The fresh tobacco leaf is ground, dried and mixed

with lime to form a powder known to the Mazatecs as San Pedro (Saint

Peter); the "best" is prepared on the Saint's day, June 29th (Inchaustegui,

1977). This preparation is more familiarly known by its Nahuatl name,

picietl @piciete). It is worn-in charms and amulets as a protection against

various "diseases" and witchcraft, but its most important use is in limpias,

or ritual cleansings. It may be used alone with a prayer and copal (an incense

prepared from the resin of Bursera spp.) (Diaz, 1975b), or in conjunction

with herbs such as basil (Ocimum spp.) or marijuana (Cannabis sativa)*,

eggs or various other substances. Anyone who comes to Don Alejandro to

be treated usually gets a : limpia This ritual cleansing may be the cure in

itself, or it may be accompanied by other "medicines". The patient is

given a pinch of the San Pedro powder (wrapped in paper) to carry with

them and use during the healing period.

One learns to become a shaman through an informal apprenticeship,

although the Mazatecs will insist they are taught by a progression of visions

from and of heaven, rather than by people. Psychotropic plants are inti-

mately associated with this training, which can last up to two years or

longer. in this area of Oaxaca, as well as the highland region visited by Diaz,

+Don Alejandro does not use marijuana, as it is illegal.

the vision inducers are taken systematically at intervals of a week to a

month. Once one becomes a healer the hallucinogenic plants are ingested

much less frequently. The process begins by taking successively increasing

doses of S. divinorum for a number of times to become acquainted with

the "way to Heaven". Next comes mastery of the morning glory (Rivea

corymbosa (L.), Hallier, f.) seeds and finally one learns to use the sacred

mushrooms. There is a very' rigid diet, or diet, to follow during this time,

"Hot" foods such as garlic and chili peppers are restricted and there must

be abstinence from sex and alcohol for extended periods. However, many

Mazatec shamans incorporate alcohol into their training and drink during

their ceremonies (Wasson and Wasson, 1957). Breaking from this dieta, or

ritual diet could "make one crazy," according to Don Alejandro and since I

such obligations require maturity, one should be at least 30 years old before

becoming a curandero.

A comparison of Mazatec hallucinogens

Ska Maria Pastora is, pharmacologically the weakest of the three hallucino-

genic plants. Following its ingestion the Virgin Mary is supposed to speak to

the individual, but only in absolute quiet and darkness. The relatively mild

experience is readily terminated by noise (such as a loud voice) or light. Don

Alejandro says the effects of tu-tu-sho, the flower seeds (R. corymbosa),

are similar to those of the Maria (S. divinorum) as both plants are siblings

(son hermanos) under the protection of the Virgin Mary and San Pedro. A

"dose" he provided weighed 9.6 g and consisted of about 350 R. corymbosa

seeds. A brief report on another morning glory (Ipomoea purpurea Both)

noted that the ingestion of a large number of seeds produced effects similar

to LSD, but with an additional narcotic component characterized by drowsi-

ness and torpor (Savage et al., 1972). Humphry Osmond also noted a narcotic

effect on dosing himself with R. corymbosa seeds (Hoffer and Osmond,

1967). The activity of morning glories appears to be due to d-lysergic acid

amide (ergine) and related alkaloids (Schultes and Hofmann, 1980). Interest-

ingly, the authors discovered a woodrose (Argyreia spp.) growing in the

vicinity of the village where Don Alejandro lived. Argyreia spp. contain LSD-

like compounds (Chao and DerMarderosian, 1973). When asked whether he

used the plant, Don Alejandro said that he did not, since it caused people

to become crazy. The curandero also had several horticultural specimens of

Coleus spp. growing near his house. Wasson has reported that the Mazatecs

believe Coleus to be a medicinal or hallucinogenic herb closely related to

S. divinorum (Wasson, 1962). However, Don Alejandro said the plants were

not medicinal and his daughter had bought them at the market because

they were pretty.

According to Don Alejandro ni-to, or the mushrooms-that-one-takes

(hongos para tomar, probably not a literal translation, see Wasson, 1980)

are unlike the other two plants. The fungi are delicado (delicate), nervioso

(nervous), una cosa de envidia (a thing of envy). Unfortunately the English

translations of these terms do not convey the Indian-Spanish concept of

magic that has a dangerous and sinister side. Santa Ana and San Venanzio,

the Saints the curandero associates with the mushrooms, were not as good

at healing as San Pedro and the Virgen Maria, the patrons of the Saliva and

the morning glory. Eating too many of the fungi can "leave one crazy"

and the visions are often trucos (tricky). Other Mazatec informants have

attributed such characteristics to the visions, saying that one has to separate

the true from the false (Inchaustegui, 1977). Wasson has reported that

misuse of the mushrooms can lead to madness (Wasson and Wasson, 1957).

Munn and Wasson have given complementary descriptions of shamanic use

of mushrooms among the Mazatecs (Munn, 1979; Wasson 1980). Psilocybin

and psilocin, the vision-inducing compounds in the fungi, were isolated by

Hofmann, who used himself as a subject to assay for their activity. He

reported that a dose of 2.4 g of dried Psilocybe mexicana Helm (an average

amount for a curandero) produced effects he could not control or resist.

A colleague "was transformed" into an Aztec priest and at the height of the

experience Hofmann felt that he "would be torn into this whirlpool of

form and color and would dissolve" (Hofmann, 1980). This powerful experi-

ence was quite unlike the mild one produced by S. divinorum. As Don

Alejandro stated it, "The Maria, on the other hand accepts you (la Maria,

en cambia, te acepta)."

Remedial uses of S. divinorum

From the shaman the investigators learned that the plant could be used

as a "medicine" as well as for the induction of visions. A low dose serves

as what the investigators interpreted to be a "tonic" or "panacea" as well

as for "magical" healing (Don Alejandro did not use such terms). An infu-

sion prepared from 4 or 5 pairs of fresh or dry leaves may be taken by the

glass (vase) or tablespoonful (cucharoda) as needed. It is used to "cure"

the following "illnesses", although there may be other possible uses:

(1) It helps one defecate and urinate. It stops diarrhea (the plant appar-

ently is believed to regulate eliminatory functions).

(2) It is given to the sick, old or dying to revive them or alleviate their

illness. People who are pale, white and almost ready to die (they have

"anemia") may recuperate on taking la Maria.

(3) It may be taken to relieve headache and rheumatism (however, when

taken in the high doses that induce visions; it often leaves one with a head-

ache the following morning, according to the curandero).

(4) There is a semi-magical disease known panz6n de barrego (sic), or

a swollen belly, which is supposedly caused by a curse from a brujo, or evil

sorcerer. The victim's midsection swells up due to a "stone" that has been

put inside them. Taking the Salvia causes elimination of this "stone" and

the belly shrinks down to size. The researchers met an old shaman who

showed them his wrinkled middle and said he had cured himself of the

"disease" by use of la Maria. Don Alejandro confirmed the "illness" and

the "cure".

Divination with S. divinorum

S. divinorum may be prepared as an infusion from 20 (about 50 g) to

80 (about 200 g) or more pairs of fresh leaves to induce visions, and may

be taken by the curandero, the patient (or apprentice) or both, depending

on the situation. Only fresh foliage will serve for divination; At this dosage

level, the Salvia is used to foretell the future, find the causes and cures of

illnesses and obtain answers to questions about friends, enemies and rela-

tives. In shamanic training, the future healer takes la Maria to learn the

ways of healing and the identification and use of medicinal plants (there is

supposedly a tree in Heaven with all such herbs on it and one talks to God

and the Saints about them under the influence of the hallucinogens). After

preliminary sessions in the company of the master, who takes the infusion

along with the apprentice to watch over him on the journey, the future

healer may continue study on his own until it is time for the next plant in

the series. Don Alejandro told the investigators that the Salvia, the morning

glory seeds and the mushrooms each told their own historic (story or history:

and ska Maria was the best teacher of the ways of curing, as one learned

the most from it. During the course of visits, the researchers were able to

participate in two sessions under the shaman's guidance. As the hallucino-

gens are never taken without a valid purpose and since the visitors were

from "the University", the ceremonies were oriented to teach them about

healing and especially the uses of the Maria and other medicinal plants.

Don Alejandro said they would have to follow the dieta, or ritual diet for

16 days, although they could bathe and drink beer (after the first time,

the dieta for S. divinorum is only 4 days in length).

The preparations for the two ceremonies were essentially the same. As

dark came (about 19:30 h to 20:00 h) the curandero began making the

Salvia infusion. The leaves were first counted out in pairs to arrive at each

person's dose and put neatly into piles with their petioles aligned. Then

Don Alejandro picked lip part of a pile and crushed it by hand into a small

enameled bowl partially-filled with water (Fig. 3). As more foliage was

squeezed and added, the liquid turned dark green from the chlorophylls.

After the potion was prepared, it was poured through a sieve into a glass

which was topped off with water (Fig. 4). During the preparations for the

second session a head of foam formed on the glasses and the curandero

laughed. He explained through his son that the foam (espuma) was an

indication of strength and the Maria would be very potent that evening. The

glasses were covered with inverted cups to "prevent the escape of the

humor (que no salga el humor)". Although the foliage of S. divinorum could

reportedly be kept fresh for a week or longer when wrapped in the large

Fig. 3. crushing the leaves while preparing the Salvia infusion.

Fig. 4. Straining the prepared infusion to remove the marc.

leaves of Xanthosoma robustum Schoff, the prepared infusion was said to

be stable for a day. The spent leaves were set aside to be discarded in an out

of the way location where they wouldn't be defiled by people or animals.

However, Don Alejandro said that they could still be used by putting them

on a subject's head to refresh them after the session. The curandero Picked

up a glass of the Maria and began an oration. The Holy Trinity, Saint Peter,

the Virgin Mary and other Saints were called on to watch over the partici-

pants and teach the visitors the ways of curing:

In nomine Spiritu Santo (this "Latin" phrase was

always translated into the vernacular as:

In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost)

Most Holy Lord Saint peter

In the name of Leandros (the subject),

In nomine Spiritu Santo

Maria, show Leandros,,

that he may see what there is in the world

For he wishes to study all the classes of medicines

Lord Jesus Christ, show him

May he learn

May he see all the classes of medicinal plants

You, who know all, show him

I want you to show him all the different kinds

of illnesses and remedies that exist in the world

In a short time he must learn your story

In nomine spiritu Santo

Most Holy Sainted Rosary

Set him free, that he may see it

Show him as you have shown me

May he recognize all that is the Universe,

All that is you History

HI wishes to learn out of love and sincerity

I want you to show him, as I am asking your favor

You, Maria and Lord Jesus Christ, amen

If there is bad or good, save him

Help him out of sincerity and love

In nomine Spiritu Santo

Most Holy Lord Saint Peter

You too, Maria, show him

Set him free that he may see it

Do not be deceptive

This day, on this very date

he is going to take it (the Salvia infusion)

In nomine Spiritu Santo

Most Holy Lord Saint Peter

Help this Leandros

May he grow more, may he learn things

Show him all that there is in the world

All that is good

All that is medicinal

In nomine spirit Santo

Most Holy Lord Saint Peter

Lord Saint Anthony, Lord Saint Peter, Jesus Christ

You are the only three who know about la Maria

You must show him all that is medicinal

All that is the Universe

All that is your History

Show him, do not be bad

In nomine Spiritu Santo

Holy Sanctuary, Lord Santa Ana

You who are good, You must help him

so that he becomes acquainted with our Universe

You must teach him what I ask

to that it will be to the Lord Saint Peter's pleasure

Let Leandros take it (la Maria)

In nomine Spiritu Santo

Most Holy Lord Saint Peter

Two to four hours passed in conversation and the telling of stories. The ·

shaman repeatedly emphasized that it was important to describe one's

visions, "If you are going to learn or if you are going to understand what

it is all about, you must speak." Finally it was time for ingestion of the

infusions (between 21:00 h and 23:00 h). Following Mazatec custom, at

least one person didn't participate, in order to watch over the rest (Wasson

et al., 1974). As a last protection against any dangers during the visionary

"travels", Don Alejandro performed limpias, or ritual cleansings, on the

visitors (Fig. 5),

In nomine spirit Santo

Most Holy Lord Saint Peter

This is a limpia for Leandros (subject)

Arise, listen, as it is now the time

'''In nomine Spiritu Santo

Most Holy Lord Saint Peter

I ask Your favor for Leandros '

Heal him, care for him

For I am going to cleanse him now

Help him at this moment that he may be cleansed

Strike out the bad illnesses that he may have

Lord (Saint Peter) attend him

That he may see the Universe

What there is in the world

Everything

Help him, raise him

May he see what there is

All that he wishes to know

Save him, care for him

Fig. 5. The shaman prepares to anoint the subject with a piece of copal dipped in the

San Pedro during the limpia, or ritual cleansing.

In nomine Spiritu Santo

Most Holy Lord Saint Peter

Reclaim this man

That he live well, live better

For this man is known by all the children of God

Heal him, as You will

Heed his messages the moment you heal him

Take care of him, help him

That is what I am saying

In nomine Spiritu Santo

Molt Holy Lord Saint Peter

Lord Jesus Christ

You know how to save him, how to cleanse him

Cure him, no matter what badness has fallen on him

Heal him, care for him

I want You to heal him and save him from all bad things

Being in my hands, I can help him,

having faith and will

In nomine Spiritu Sato

Most Holy Lord Saint Peter

Sainted Trinity, care for him

Help him, let no evil befall him

As the oration was being recited, Don Alejandro anointed the subject

with a piece of copal dipped in the San Pedro. The curandero then gave him

a pinch of the San Pedro to carry for protection if he felt dangerduring or

after the session. After a final benediction (Fg. 6), the potions were drunk

and the light was turned out.

Session 1, August 18, 1979

The participants were Diaz, Valdes and Don Alejandro, whose son sat on a

bench and watched over the others during the proceedings. The curandero

and Diaz, who had taken la Maria several times previously, each had doses

prepared from 50 pairs of leaves. Valdes received a beginner's dose made

from 20 pairs. They took the Salvia preparations around 22:30 h. The

visitors shared a large cot while the shaman lay on a petate, or sleeping mat

which was unrolled on the floor.

Diaz sat quietly on the side of the cot after the lights went out. About

15 min after ingesting the infusion he began to see subtle visions, constricted

like columns of smoke in the total darkness. It made no difference whether

his eyes were opened or closed. Deciding to speak out, he saw a light which

disappeared as he began to describe it. The images increased in intensity. He

saw a mountain made of ice, as though he were at the base of a cliff formed

from large ice columns. The vision slowly changed into Cerro Rab6n, a

nearby mountain intimately associated with Mazatec legends (Inchiustegui,

1977). About 23:00 h the flow of images changed into lights of various

Fig. 6. Benediction of the Salvia infusion just prior to its ingestion.

shades of blue, indigos and purples, scattered as if in a spatial vacuum.

Depending on his perspective, he was either traveling through them or else

they were being projected toward him. He saw a cross being encircled by

a light and a mantle. As he described the imagery in words, it seemed to be

fixed more clearly in his memory and he felt it would aid in later recall of

the experience.

Some 45 min after the light went out, Don Alejandro began to speak in

a monotone. His son did not interrupt to translate from the Mazatec. As

the shaman spoke, Valdes (who had only experienced a few brief visions

which he hadn't described) saw a black sky with brightly-colored objects

floating in it. He suddenly found himself speeding toward one and actually

felt he was accelerating through space past the rest. The light turned out to

be a Mazatec village similar to that of the curandero. Valdes saw it from

above, as if he were on a hill. Shapes, like kaleidoscopic pillars of smoke,

were at the sides of some of the houses, Then he was suddenly back in space,

receding away from the vision.

Don Alejandro stopped speaking, turned on the light and went to look

for a "spy" he had heard outside the house. He found nothing, but forced

himself to vomit, which he said would end his visions. The session had

lasted about 1 h, and the following hour was spent in discussion of what had

been seen. The curandero told the two visitors that he had watched over

them during the session and ascertained what they needed to know. The old

man said that after a few more experiences Diaz would learn to heal and use

the medicinal plants. He mentioned a woman, a doctor like Diaz, who

would try to interfere with or get involved in his work. Don Alejandro

emphasized to Valdes, who had remained quiet throughout the night, that

it was necessary to speak out about the visions and he would need many

sessions before he would learn how to heal. Everyone then went to sleep

and rose early the next morning.

Session 2, March 6, 1980

During this much less formal session Diaz and Valdes took the infusion

of S. divinorum and were monitored by Don Alejandro and his son, as well

as by Paul, who tape recorded events throughout the afternoon and evening.

The researchers arrived at the village around 17:00 h and the shaman spent

the entire afternoon and early evening talking with them about his visions

of "Heaven" and the office (escritorio) he had there, near. God and Jesus. - -

He recounted many tales and legends, including one about the origins of

healing. It was a very enjoyable afternoon which provided an excellent

set and setting (Weil, 1972) for the visitors' experience with la Maria

Diaz and Valdes received infusions prepared from 60 and 50 pairs of

fresh S. divinorum leaves, respectively. They drank the prepared potions

at 21:00 h and lay down in Don Alejandro's bedroom while the curandero's

son and Paul sat on a bed next to them. Don Alejandro remained in the

other room. The two researchers spoke in turn and were questioned by the

younger Mazatecan whenever there was a lull in their speech:

Paul -- Nine o'clock, Leander and Jose Luis are drinking (the Salvia infusion). . .

(indicates a pause in the recording)

Diaz -- Nueve doce (he looked at his lighted watch). Empiezo a sentir olgunos de 106,

de los efectos de la planta. Me siento muy relajado. Y he tenido en los ultimos minutes

muchas imagenes de plantas y flores. Mucha, muchos tipos de flores diferentes. . . . .

olgunos de ellos desconocidos para mi... De muchos colores. Siento mi cuerpo muy

suave, como ligero. En los ultimos momentos empezaba a se... vei algunas imagenes

come de puntos de luz. (Nine- twelve. I am beginning to feel some of the, of the effects

of the plant. I feel very relaxed. And I have had, in the past minutes, many images of

plants and flowers, Many, many different kinds of flowers . . some of them unknown

to me . . . Or many colors. My body feels very mellow, as if it were light. In the past

moments I began to see some images like points of light.) That's all for now.

Valdes ...plants and flowers. I think they were what people call eidetic images, cause

I saw them when I first closed my eyes. They've disappeared. I feel like I'm being twisted

around inside of my body. Very, very strange sensations, like I'm being... twisted. Boy,

like I'm spinning.

(Spanish deleted from here on - All translations are in parentheses)

Diaz - (Spanish deleted) translation- (Nine-twenty. The. . . the sensation of lightness of the body is more intense. In a given moment I felt as though . . . as though I were floating through a root and the images of plants have changed and now I have had sensations like floating in the night full of stars and I realize that it isn't... it isn't easy to have... that it isn't easy to have the, the faith that he. . . that he asks of us. That he asks of me. I feel very. . . very, like very moved. All these things. That's all for now.)

Son -- Jose Luis?

Diaz -- (yes?)

Son -- (Do you see any more images?)

Diaz -- (Yes, a little. I have seen more, but it has not been very intense, no? I have seen..

as though I were floating in the sky, as though I had entered a large boat or something

like that. And. . . and as if all the things inside were all very mechanical like a machine that

was very... very precise and very geometric. And in.. . and curiously, as if in some cases

there were again flowers inside the place. And again I began to see like many flowers, but

as if they were all mechanical, as if they were not...real.)

Son -- (Christ? Didn't you see him?)

Diaz -- (Well... no. At times I thought about him, but he didn't appear as an image, no? At times I thought about some of the images which. .. which Don Alejandro described to us. Of the offices and.. .But, but nothing else.)

Son - (They didn't show you everything.)

Valdes -...down. It's very very hard for me to talk. Like something's pushing me

down into the bed. My arms are very, very sore. (Dog barks) I see things but there's no, no (lost to dog barking). They just overwhelm me. Very hard to describe. I see things that look like fruits. Very strange, I can see the seeds. I can see the (dog barks) oranges and yellows and colors. Strange. Like giant fruit.

Son -- (What is Leandros saying? What did he see?)

Diaz -- (dog barks throughout this section of the recording). (He says that it is hard...

it is hard for him to talk. That his body teels very heavy.)

Son -- Mm-hmm.

Diaz -- (That the images are not... they are weak, no? They aren't very'... they aren't very intense, no? At times he succeeds... he succeeds in seeing some colors. He describes some flowers, and like fruit.)

Son -- (Yes.)

Diaz -- (But there aren't. . . there aren't images that are very.. . very.. .)

Valdes -- (There are many of seeds, no? Those of melons, no?)

Son -- Si.

Diaz -- (You fee... you feel very content, no?)

Valdes -- (Very heavy.)

Son -- (Didn't you see anything else?)

Valdes -- (sic; sounded somewhat intoxicated at this time.) (Things, but I can't describe them.)

Valdes -- . . (Cross With two arms) (. ..it seems to be burning, no? That it bar two rays instead of one, no?)

Son -- Mm-hmm.

Valdes - (This thing seems to have fire.)

Son -- Mm-hmm.

Valdes -- (dog barked throughout). (That there is like a wrapped body.)

Son -- Mm-hmm.

Valdes -- . (dogs barked throughout). (of a cross. Now, (lost to dogs) now there were many things but now they are disappearing. Everythng is like a very black. . .)

Son -- Si.

Valdes -- (It looks like a picture, but everything in black and white.)

Son -- Mm-hmm.

Diaz -- (I saw, I saw something like the flower of the... the newer of the... of the seed of the Virgin. Buite clearly with its purplish color. I... Ipomea violacea, no? I see many, many images if... if I concentrate on them, no? They move a lot, no?)

Son -- Si.

Diaz -- (However the... the state of feeling content left me a while ago.)

Son -- Mm-hmm.

(the dog quieted down for a while)

Son -- (Can my Father explain now?)

Diaz -- (Yes. Look, I had. .. I think it is.. . it is also important that you tell him that. .. that he shouldn't feel bad because, because we... didn't... didn't see what he saw.. .)

Son -- Mm-hmm

Diaz -- (. . .exactly, because we come from. . . from a very different manner of... of looking at things, no?)

Son -- Mm-hmm.

Diaz -- (Then, because of this we have more difficulties in order to... in order to put ourselves in... in contact with Christ.)

Son -- Con Cristo. (With Christ.)

Diaz -- Y con lo Sagrado, no? (And with Sacred things. no?)

Son -- Mm-hmm.

Diaz -- (To us... to us other things happen, no? He shouldn't see this as a failure, no? Yours or even less, of the plant, no?)

Son -- Mm-hmm.

Diaz-- (Only it's that our experience is very different because.. . well, we see

things differently, no?)

Son -- Si. ·

Diaz -- (It is important tor him that... for you both that you understand this, no?)

Son -- Mm-hmm.

Diaz -- (I feel very content, no? For... for the experience just as it is, no?)

Son -- Si.

Diaz -- (Well, that's all.)

Son -- (You, Leandros, do you see more images? Or is that all you have seen?)

Valdes -- (I see images and they look a little but... like the images of the

church but they don't have faces, no?)

Son -- Mm-hmm.

Valdes -- (They have... one sees this, their clothing, no? Of, of gold and everything but there is no image. There aren't any faces, no? That one recognized the...)

Son -- Mm-hmmm.

Valdes -- (lost; figures were praying). (They have their hands like this... like the...)

Son - (Is that all you saw?)

Valdes-- (I am looking at it now. I still... still am looking at it.)

Diaz -- (I continue to see, if I pay attention I continue seeingimages.)

Son -- Mm-hmm.

Diaz -- (Like flowers again, very luminous, no? As if they had an interior light.)

Son -- Si.

Diaz -- (I think it has a lot to do with the... with the Heaven that.. . that you described to us a while ago, no? Of how Heaven is.)

Son -- Mm-hmm.

Diaz -- (Full of music. Full of flowers, no?)

Valdes -- (I see something between... between a cross and a sword which is all

covered with gold, very... it has many jewels.)

Son -- Mm-hmm... (Do all the images continue, or is it still there?)

Valdes -- (Yes, yes, it... it continues, it continues. But it changes, no? It continues and it changes, no?)

Son -- Si.

Valdes -- (Now it is.. . now it is surely a sword. .. Now it has disappeared.)

Diaz -- (Now I raw like a light...like a light. These, these flowers that I

said had like a. . . like very illuminated in the middle. Now it has changed into a light. . .

strong, no?)

Son -- Mm-hmm.

Diaz -- (Which comes as though from above.)

Valdes -- (lost to truck noise).... (lost).... (It is...is a shape between a cross but it has everything inside. It has everything... lights and animals.. . of... of people, of plants. Everything. ...of many colors, like a picture.Very, very vivid colors. Of animals.)

Valdes -...to collect this. .: this image of a cross I could seem to be able to, when I

really concentrate on it, pull It back out. It disappears and recedes into the things around

it, and if I'd lose it in. .. in all the things that are happening. But if I work at it I can

concentrate and bring it back (It's that I can..; I, I lose the image of the crews. But if I think about this thing, it comes back to me again, no?)

Son -- Si.

Valdes -- (It returns to me again and I can pay attention to it and concentrate on it. But it is fairly difficult. But that. . . one can. . . maintain this thing.) I think that's something about this state that you learn to work around in. Pull images out as you need them.

Diaz -- . ..images of... like flying from a certain.. .

(lost to noise). (Of... of flying as though at a certain altitude. And there are like fields planted with. . . and full of plants. Planted with all the plants that produce... produce grain that if used for food. Fields that are very, well cared for.)

Valdes --

"tilted on its side"? (dog starts again) (...which seems to be between

a castle, or like a... a Byzantine church. I'm quite far from this thing. Not at its side,

no? It isn't as it should be. It seems to be a little, how does one say, "tilted on its side"?

I, am very far away and as though I'm very high above this thing. Now it looks more

like a castle. I see it from the... from very far away as though it is from there. As though

it is below me. But I don't see anybody of peo. .. of people. There isn't anybody. There

are banners. Of all colors.)

Diaz -- (That's interesting. When you mentioned a castle I also began to see one.)

Son -- Un castillo. (A castle.)

Valdes -- "just covered by robes"? (Still. .. I still see it. I see like shadows,

shapes, but they don't have... I don't see faces on there things, no? They are like...

how does one say, "covered by robes"? They make... and march but these things are

very, very serious.)

Son -- dEs todo lo qUe ues (Is that all you see?)

Valdes -- (I'm still looking at it, no? This thing is new to me. This thing.)

Fifty minutes had elapsed. The curandero's Son cut the session short,

saying; that the village noises, especially the dogs, were too loud for worth-

while experiences. As Diaz and Valdes left the bedroom they staggered and

stumbled. Although they said their minds felt clear, the tape recording

showed their speech to be slurred and their sentence patterns to be awkward

and broken. Diaz commented, "It is as though the body is intoxicated

(borracho) and the mind isn't." Don Alejandro spent the next hour discuss-

ing their visions in detail with them, saying that with more experience what

they saw would become clearer and more meaningful. He told the visitors

that Paul should drive when they left, as the effects of la Maria would last

the entire night.

As the car traveled through the late Oaxacan darkness, Valdes saw more.

icon-like images. Among them was the Virgin of Guadalupe amidst red,

white and green streaming banners. Whenever the vision began to fade, he

found that he could recall it at will. Arriving at their destination, the three

researchers ate a light meal. Diaz wrapped himself in a sarope (poncho),

for he had a chill. He remarked that this had happened to him on previous

occasions when he had taken the Salvia infusion. His heart rate, when

measured by Paul, had slowed from its normal 60 beats per minute to about

however, he found himself standing in a bizarre, colored landscape talking

subjects eyes and both had a normal pupillary response. Valdes felt "heavy"

and "sore", especially in the shoulders and upper arms. After a shower, all

went to bed.

When the lights went out (about 23:30 h or 2.5 h after ingestion of

la Maria), Valdes began to have more visions. He saw a purplish light that

changed into a bee or mothlike shape which became a pulsating sea anemone.

The imagery expanded into a desert landscape full of moving prickly pear

(Opuntia spp.) shapes. During the first session the previous summer and

throughout this evening Valdes felt the visions appeared to be like looking

at a cross between a moving cartoon and a silent motion picture. Suddenly,

however, he found himself standing in a bizarre, colored landscape talking

to a man who was either shaking or holding on to his hand. Next to them

was something that resembled the skeleton of a giant stick-model airplane

made from rainbow colored inner tubing. The "reality" of what he was

seeing amazed him. After a brief instant the desert scene reappeared and

Valdes then slowly drifted off to sleep. The three researchers rose early

the next morning and all were in good spirits.

Discussion and conclusions: ethnopharmacology of S. divinorum

Remedial uses

It is beyond the scope of this paper to comment on the efficacy of S.

divinorum in treatment of the various "folk ailments". There is not enough

information available to make a scientific decision. More fieldwork at this

stage would be more practical and certainly much more useful than trying

to screen for anti-inflammatory, cathartic, analgesic, diuretic, tonic and

magical properties in the laboratory. However, it should be noted that many

Salvia species are used medicinally throughout. the world, and the genus

name itself comes from the Latin salvare, to save. The middle English name

for sage was save or saue. from the Latin Salvia via Old English saluie (Oxford

English Dictionary, 1971), and Chaucer mentions it as a cure for wounds

and broken limbs in "The Knightes Tale" (Chaucer, 1927). Common sage,

S. officinalis, and Clary sage, S. sclarea, have had a long history of use in

treatment of numerous maladies (Grieve, 19jl). S. miltiorrhiza, or ton-shen,

is one of the five astral remedies in Chinese medicine as is jen-shen, or

ginseng (Panax spp.). This sage is credited with many tonic properties in

the Pen Ts'ao, published in 1578 (Smith and Stuart, 1973), and is listed in

"A Barefoot Doctor's Manual" (Anon., 1974). Siri Altschul has collected

information on a number of medicinal Salvias from specimens at the Harvard

herbaria (Altschul, 1973) and Diaz lists nine species as being used medicin-

ally in Mexico (Diaz, 1976).

Use in divination

During the two sessions with S. divinorum, the investigators noted the

following:

(1) Various sensations were reported by the subjects while lying or sitting

down in quiet darkness. These included flying or floating and traveling

through "space", twisting and spinning, heaviness or lightness of the body

and "soreness".

(2) Physical effects also accompanied the experience. There was an

intoxication that produced dizziness and a lack of coordination on trying

to move about. The recording of the second session revealed slurred speech

and awkward sentence patterns. Diaz had a decrease in heart rate accom-

panied by a chill. Both subjects had a normal pupillary response to a light

shined into their eyes.

(3) Even though the subjects were aware of the sensations and the physi-

cal incoordination produced by the Salvia infusion, they claimed their minds

seemed to be in a state of acute awareness. The experience was not like

intoxication from alcoholic beverages.

(4) Previous reports of S. divinorum ingestion emphasized the mildness

of its effects, and the shortness of their duration. It has been shown, how-

ever, that under the appropriate conditions of quiet and darkness it, was

possible to experience effects which lasted for hours. The visions produced

were readily terminated by noise or light. I

(5) There is apparently an aspect of the Salvia intoxication that leaves

the subject's mind in a receptive state. This was well documented in the

second session when both subjects spoke out fairly continuously. Diaz

began by describing plants and flowers. After he finished speaking Valdes

began with a similar vision. When Diaz lamented his inability to see the

religious figures as described by the curandero, he apparently triggered off

Valdes, who saw such imagery for the rest of the session and during the

ride in the car. As Valdes described a castle, Diaz began to see one also.

Don Alejandro's son translated the shaman's explanation of how S.

divinorum worked in humans,

What happens to the i-nyi-ma-no (the soul, the heart or life, all three concepts are

contained in a single Mazatec word) when one drinks the Maria is that the Maria

has so much liquor (licor) that one is left as in a faint. For this reason a person

becomes intoxicated (borracho) when they have been entered by the Maria, the

oration my father prays and the words of Christ, also. But it really isn't liquor, I

tell you, you go into a "delicate" state (delicado vayas). Do not worry, do not

be afraid of what is happening to the i-nyi-ma-no; something does happen. but

it is small and unimportant. At times one who takes the Maria becomes half-drunk

but with the result that what they are taking will be engraved on their mind.

Among Mazatec healers who use the three divinatory plants (the mush-

rooms, the morning glory seeds and the Salvia), S.. divinorum is the first to

be employed in shamanic training. Leary and Alpert have been credited with

being the first to discover the importance of what they called set ("a person'

expectation of what a drug will do to him") and setting ("the environment,

both physical and social, in which a drug is taken") to an individual's experi

ences under the influence of a hallucinogen (Wed, 1972). In traditional

cultures, like that of the Mazatecs, the purpose of plants like ska Maria

Pastora is to induce visions, and shamans, such as Don Alejandro,are master

at the manipulation of set and setting to such ends. Although reportedly

only weakly psychotropic, the Salvia infusion will induce powerful visions

under the appropriate conditions. Two ritual orations, which heighten the

mystery of what is to follow, are performed on the subject or apprentice,

who then takes la Maria with the curandero himself. As the shaman reveals

his vision in the silent darkness, the subject (whose mind has been put into

a receptive state by the Maria and the ceremonial setting) is able to "see"

it also. By having a sober person monitor the session any difficulties that

arise will be observed, and if the experience becomes too terrifying, it can

be readily terminated by a few words or producing a light. Mastering S.

divinorum and learning to use the morning glory seeds before employing the

mushrooms probably makes an apprenticeship much less traumatic than it

would be by use of the fungi alone, in addition to giving the future shaman

wider insights into the varieties of hallucinogenic experiences.

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